PRACTICE TEST FOR EESD 522, 2011

PRACTICE TEST FOR EESD 522 2010

PRINT AND BRING IN CLASS ON MONDAY TO PRACTICE!


Instructions:

1. The total time is 4 hours.
2. The total mark allotted is 100 marks
3. Be precise and short; do not write what is not asked, even if it is right.
4. Good Luck, all of you can do well.


SECTION A

QUESTIONS 1-20 ARE 1 MARK EACH: [ 20 MARKS ]

1. A high discount rate assumes that resources will _____________ in value rapidly in the future.

2. Spiny Babbler is an example of __________________ bird species that is found only in one geographic area such as Nepal.

3. In 1980, the concept of sustainable development was introduced to the world by _________________________________.

4. Development is different from just Economic Growth because:

a. It includes Economic Growth and Equity
b. It excludes Economic Growth
c. Neither of the above
d. I do not know.

5. Kanchanjunga Conservation Area belongs to IUCN Protected Area Category number:

a. II
b. VI
c. IV
d. None of the above

6. Bioreserve Strategy involves

a. Using landscape ecology concepts of cores and buffers
b. Connecting reserves with corridors
c. Using Gap analysis to map out new reserves
d. All of the above

7. According to Bhuju et al 2007, how many species of animals are protected in the Central Zoo?

a. about 100 species
b. about 200 species
c. about 150 species
d. about 250 species

8. The contribution of Nepal to global greenhouse gases is about:

a. 2%
b. 0.2%
c. 0.02%
d. 0.002%

9. The current growth rate of global population is:

a. equal to Nepal’s current population growth rate
b. less than Nepal’s current population growth rate
c. more than Nepal’s current population growth rate
d. I have no idea, sorry.


10. Externalities a. Tropical Forestry Action Plan
11. Ecosystem Resilience opposite b. Landscape Ecology
12. Resolution c. Costs not internalized in economics
13. David Pearce d. Ecosystem Fragility
14. Norman Myers e. Minimum mappable unit
15. James Lovelock f. Environmental economist
16. Ice core air bubbles g. The Gaia Hypothesis
17. Pralad Yonzon i. Paleontological climate samples
18. Habitat Fragmentation can be studied by j. Nepali wildlife conservationist

True and False

19. 99% of all living creatures ever created are now extinct.
20. Adaptive Management explicitly accepts the characteristic of Uncertainty when it calls for “adapting” to new information as we learn from our mistakes in conservation.

SECTION B

QUESTIONS 21 TO 30 ARE 2 MARKS EACH, DO “ALL” [ 20 MARKS]

21. Why and how do you propose to conserve Cordyceps sinensis? (2)
22. About 15% of the Himalayan areas are considered to be Biodiversity Hotspots. Why are these areas considered “Hot”? (2)

23. Name the 4 organizations that supported the publication of the Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book by Ukesh Bhuju et al 2007? (2)

24. What did the Sherpas teach Arnae Naess about the principles of Deep Ecology? Give examples. (2)

25. Define and explain the usefulness of enhancing Ecological-Economic Efficiency as a means of effective Biodiversity Conservation with examples? (2)
26. How is the following picture central to Nepal’s effort to get money for community forestry from climate change carbon sequestration funds? (2)


27. If you were to assign numerical values in terms of probability to various terms of Likelihood, what would be the numbers for the following: (2)

Virtually Certain Probability greater than 99%
Very Likely ?
Likely Probability about 50%
Medium likelihood ?
Low confidence Probability less than 33%

28. How is “sustainable development” one of the key strategies for biodiversity conservation in Nepal? (2)

29. Explain briefly the distinctions among Habitat Degradation and Habitat loss with examples. (2)

30. With respect to the table below, explain why the percentages of plants or animals are DIFFERENT for different groups?
(2)


SECTION C

QUESTIONS 31 TO 44 ARE 3 MARKS EACH, DO ANY 10 [ 30 MARKS].

31. What are the reasons for the Tropics having the most biodiversity and the greatest danger to biodiversity in the Tropics. (3)

32. List, without describing, at least 3 important criticisms against the application of CBA, Cost-Benefit Analysis, for Biodiversity Conservation. (3)

33. Discuss the 3 ethical norms or postulates of Conservation Biology. (3)

34. What is the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)? Explain why this MSY is half the Carrying Capacity in an ideal theoretical solution? (3)

35. Discuss the differences between Conservation and Preservation approaches of Pinchot and Muir in today’s definition of biodiversity conservation. (3)

36. With respect to the following table published in Wildlife Times Jan 2009, answer the following questions: (3)

a. What is the current population of tiger in Nepal, according to the latest census being conducted in 2009?
b. Why is there no improvement in tiger population in Chitwan national park? Is this poor management? Comment.
c. Why is there “increase” in tiger population in the last row?




37. With respect to the news item below, please answer the following questions: (3)
a. Do you agree with the research that climate change is having an effect on elephant behaviour?
b. If yes, explain why? If no, explain why?
c. Try to find the weakness in the scientific logic of the article, based on your knowledge of climate change effect on biodiversity.





38. With regards to the conference below and following chart, explain what you understand by “Enhanced Ecosystem Services to Global Change ... with Mountain Biodiversity” giving specific examples from Nepal Himalayas, if possible. (3)





39. What is so “funny” about the following picture? Describe the biodiversity theory implicit in this picture. (3)








40. How will you protect lizards OUTSIDE the protected sites in above table? Give examples of gharials, mugger crocodiles, cobras, lizards etc. (3)

41. Discuss the problem of mountain agrobiodiversity below. Explain the threats and possible solutions. (3)
“Nepal, a quintessential mountain environment, has more than 2,000 indigenous varieties of rice alone, including many of the famous aromatic basmati type.
"Of these 75 traditional varieties inventoried in the Pokhara Valley, 17 have been lost, that the peasants can recall," says Subedi. "There are another 47 whose areas of cultivation have shrunk so much that they are in the process of being lost."
42. Conservation Ethics is said to be enunciated in the following quotation:
“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.”
Who said this, in what book, and what does it mean? (3)
43. Explain how the following theoretical concepts of Landscape Ecology approach have been applied to the Terai Arc Landscape Project (TAL) for tiger conservation. (3)







44. Explain the edge effect with the following curve and discuss why fragmentation is an important a threat as habitat loss. (3)



SECTION D

QUESTIONS 45 TO 48 ARE 10 MARKS EACH, DO ANY 3 [30 MARKS].

45. With respect to the following figure from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, answer the following questions: (10)

a. What is the web page address of the MEA?

b. How does the extinction rate of mammals in Distant Past and Recent Past compare?

c. If a species, on average, lives up to 26 million years, and 99% of all species ever created are now extinct, why should we humans care about current extinction rates?


46. With respect to the following extract of the types of biodiversity conservation practiced in Nepal, please give ONE example in short but specific details: (10)

6.1 NEPAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY (NBS) 2002 – HMG, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation supported by GEF & UNDP-Nepal)

EXISTING MECHANISM FOR CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY

Six categories of biodiversity conservation

1. Protected areas
2. Forests
3. Rangelands
4. Agrobiodiversity
5. Wetlands
6. Mountain biodiversity


47. With respect to the following biodiversity conservation strategies, compare any TWO strategies used in Nepal: (10)

STRATEGIES TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY

1. Cross-Sectoral Strategies (17)
• Landscape planning approach
• Integrating local participation
• Institutional strengthening
• In-situ conservation
• Strengthening the national biodiversity unit
• Increasing support for biodiversity research and conservation
• Endorsing indigenous knowledge and innovations
• Cross-sectoral co-ordination and implementation of policies
• Enhancing national capacity
• Ex-situ conservation/biotechnology
• Securing intellectual property and farmer’s property rights
• Biodiversity prospecting
• Environmental Impact Assessment
• Women in biodiversity conservation
• Developing eco-tourism
• Increasing conservation awareness
• Biodiversity registration



48 With respect to the following map, answer the following questions: (10)
a. What are areas “protected” from?
b. About what percentage of Nepal’s areas are in Protected areas in Bhuju, 2007, book?
c. There are many types of protected areas listed in the legend? What are the differences among the various categories?

IMAGE OF MY WALK IN KHWOPA COLLEGE

Sagarmatha National Park

Sagarmatha National Park_Keshav

Abstract

This study is focused on “Understanding Biodiversity Conservation and Vegetation of Sagarmatha National Park Solukhumbu. This study was carried out in the proposed books(Ukesh Raj Bhuju et al Biodiversity Resource Book); and resource persons of Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation(DNPWC) of Nepal and its website; Google Earth search on Protected Area, Haufler, Cooperrider, CBD report 2009. The study aims to understand ecology, economy and social strata in proposed National Park. The problems and issues are criticized to improve the condition of natural resources . Some major Methods included were secondary data analysis and different reports, websites, WebPages. It will provide few recommendations for improving and implementing policy and programs.
Location
Sagarmatha National Park is located to the north-east of Kathmandu in the Solukhumbu, district of Nepal( 27°45'-28°07'N, 86°28'-87°07'E). It was established in 19th July 1976. It has covered an area of 1148 square Kilometres.The park includes the highest peak in the world, Mt. Sagarmatha (Everest), and several other well-known peaks such as Lhotse, Nuptse, Cho Oyu, Pumori, Ama Dablam, Thamserku, Kwangde, Kangtaiga and Gyachung Kang. The park was added to the list of World Heritage Sites in 1979.A lots of endangered species are found in this park. This park is very famous for tourists because of Mt. Everest. The best season to visit this park is October, November, December to February. This park has one buffer zone which is mainlt situated in Chaunrikharka VDCs having 1288 households and 5896 population with 275 square kilometres . Namche, Khumjung and Chaunrikharka are the VDCs of the park. There are 8 buffer community forests.Glimpse of park is given in annex-I.
The main settlements are Namche Bazar, Khumjung, Khunde, Thame, Thyangboche, Pangboche and Phortse. The economy of the Khumbu Sherpa community has traditionally been heavily based on trade and livestock herding. But with the coming of international mountaineering expeditions since 1950 and the influx of foreign trekkers, the Sherpa economy today is becoming increasingly dependent on tourism.
Flora
Pine and hemlock forests are found at the lower elevations of the park. Above 3500m, trees such as birch, rhododendron, silver fir and juniper trees can be seen. Rhododendron show luminous colours in spring and monsoon seasons. The tree line in the region is at 4500m. Birch gives way to juniper and rhododendron scrubs. The park landscape is cut by deep rivers and glaciers. It can be segregated into four climatic zones. Where 1074 species of flora,166 vascular plants, 6 gymnosperms,109 dicots and 45 monocots are found.
Fauna
Endangered Animals : Endangered animals residing in this park are Snow Leopard, Musk Deer, Wild Yak, Red Panda and Himalayan Black Bear.Large Mammals : Big mammals commonly seen in the park are the Himalayan Tahr and Musk Deer. Other Mammals : Other mammals include the Himalayan Black Bear, Jackal, Weasels, Marten, Common Langur and the Himalayan Mousehare (Pika) all together 33. Birds : The park is the residence of more than 208 species of birds. The most common ones are the Impeyan Pheasant (Danphe), Redbilled Chough, Blood pheasant and Yellow-billed Chough.
Conservation
The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973), the Himalayan National Park Regulations (1979) and the Buffer Zone Management guidelines (1996,1999) provide the legal basis for the protection of the flora and fauna in Himalayan ecology.
Main objectives of the management plan are to ensure the protection of wildlife, water and soil resources because of the Park's national and international importance; also to safeguard the interests of the Sherpa residents and the many others downstream in Nepal and India affected by the condition of the Dudh Kosi catchment.
People in buffer zone are not having good strata, they are farmers e.g. farmers of Pangboche have the problem of livelihood. They have got the problem of lack of fire wood because of quota system of fire wood per year. Only 15 days the forests in the buffer zone are opened for the farmers.They can collect only one Bhari fire wood per day. It is not sufficient for the people that is why they prepare cow dung’s as their fuel. So that sustainable agricultural farming has been decreasing due to lack of manure. Lodges and Hotels are collecting more fire wood . Military people are checking pro-poor but not wel-to-do.
Tourism is main part of the Sagarmatha National Park. Local people are getting money only from rice/food and lodges. No any local initiatives are for poor people. Hotels and Lodges are reserved from Kathmandu that is why money again goes to capital city not to local people. Conservation is possible if local people are participated .Tourism activities are not focused to poor people.
Conservation Trials
Emerging participatory conservation initiatives
Following the success of the program’s implementation through the participation of local community members, HMGN has approved new policies regarding wildlife conservation through the participatory approach. The NPWC Act 1973 was amended for the fifth time in 2004. The new amendment includes provisions for wildlife farming, reproduction and research; elephant domestication; detailed specifications of the provision of buffer zones and specifications relating to the exchange of wildlife species with other countries. Following are the new policies recently approved by the government.
New policy on protected area management
HMGN has approved a policy in-execution regarding the handing over of management responsibilities of protected areas to interested INGOs/ NGOs or local communities. The objective is to ensure maximum participation of local people in sharing benefits from conservation activities, while contributing to biodiversity conservation and environmental protection. The decision of HMGN to hand over the management responsibility is inconformity with the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) and ensuring local people’s access to natural resources and equitable distribution of benefits.
Wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy
The Cabinet approved the “Wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy” in –execution 2060 on 28 August, 2003. The protected species that may be permitted for farming include gharial crocodile (Gavialis gangeticus), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), crimson horned pheasant (Tragopan satyra) and cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichi). Other species included in the list are barking deer, spotted deer, sambar, rhesus monkey, hog deer, wild boar, snakes and all other bird species. The seed animals for farming can be obtained from the DNPWC and the permission fee ranges from five thousand to forty thousand rupees. Permission for the farming of protected species could be obtained from the MFSC, while DNPWC has been authorized to issue permission for other species of wildlife.
Sagarmatha Community Agro-Forestry Project(SCAFP)
The WWF Nepal Program has initiated SCAFP in Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). The SCAFP is a multifaceted community-based conservation project, initiated in July 1996, to address the issue of deforestation in the Sagarmatha region. One of the major achievements of the project is the preparation of the BZ Management Plan for SNP. The other notable activity was the preparation of operational plans and statutes of four community forest user groups. Regular project activities such as nursery management, plantation and forest regeneration were undertaken by local CFUGs and Monastery Management Committees through financial grant support.
Conservation Critiques
Population growth is being the main problem for conservation. Because morepopulation needed more food, fodder, fuel, firewood; which are supplied from the forest of National Park; so that forests are being deforested day by day.Sagarmatha National Park is at very high altitude, energy sources are lack there that is why more forests are in encroachment because of firewood; which is the major source of energy. The growth of forest in high altitude is very low on the other side consumption is increasing due to population and tourists. Flow of tourists is one major issue in conservation.
Table 2:electricity and other facilities in households
S.N VDC Electricity Solar LP Gas
1 Namche 77 4 4
2 Khumjung 65 10 1
3 Chaunrikharka 74 14 4
There are 648 households in Park area, only 253 households have got facilities of modern energy sources. Other 395households are using fire wood as major source of energy. The foresting is being encroaching for fodder, firewood, furniture, medicinal herbs, grazing cattle.
Extinction is the most irreversible and tragic of all environmental calamities. With each plant and animal species that disappears, a precious part of creation is casually erased(Michel Soule,2004).Human population and consumption pressures are the root threat to biodiversity.Habitats degradation , overexploitation, climate change , human activities like agriculture, industries, urbanization , international trades etc are major root cause for biodiversity loss.
The IUCN red listed plants and animals are in Sagarmatha National park. Snow leopard, Musk deer, Red Panda, Impeyan Pheasant, Lammergeyer, Bearded vulture, Snow cock and yellow billed chough are red listed but their population and habitats are not properly managed. Violators and poachers are not arrested by government .Musk deer and Himalayan Thar have been hunting by poacher with the support of security force. Community awareness in the World Heritage Site has not been done properly. But kerosene depots are supplying fuel at Namche and Lukla. 230731 kg of garbage cleaned from the region of Sagarmatha National Park in 2001/2002 but it is not running in these days , which may cause more pollution in park area.
I took interviews with soil conservation officer of Kathmandu ,Mr. Shyam Sundar Shrestha, who was the assistant warden of Shivapuri National Park as well as researcher of eastern National Park.He told that due to the lack of young people in the area of Sagarmatha National Park ,there are threats on biodiversity conservation. Similarly Mr.Baburam Bhattarai asst ecologist of DNPWC Babarmahal, said that:”conservation problems are due to increase in population, high consumption of fire wood, and low rate of growth of plants in the alpine and sub-alpine region, where our Sagarmatha National Park lies on. He emphasized on people’s participation for conservation issues.
The conservation policy of Nepal has evolved from an early emphasis on species preservation and research with strict law enforcement practices to a more conciliatory and participatory approach. In buffer zone area of Sagarmatha National Park, there are two indigenous systems , they are 1.Di system and 2.Nawa syatem.The first system provides ideas and policies for Yaks,Sheeps and Chyangra grazing as well as management of fire wood.In this system old trees are referred to cut and prohibited to cut new ones. The second system is tourism management or trekking for tourists, who can goes and fair system. This system appointed guards for the forests.These systems are inactive. For conservation of flora and fauna these should activated.
It embarked upon a modern era of wildlife conservation with the enactment of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act in 1973. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal has approved three new policies, namely: 1) wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy; 2) policy on management of domesticated elephants; and 3) the new policy on protected area management.These policies have placed local communities in the center of the conservation program. A number of community-based participatory programs have been implemented inside, outside and in the BZs of PAs. The Buffer Zone Management Model and the Landscape Approach to biodiversity conservation are successful approaches in the context of Nepal.
Over the past three centuries, about the half of the world’s forest cover has been removed to make way for crops lands, pastures and settlements. In 25 countries no forest remains,and in additional 29 countries , more than 90% of the forest have been lost(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005).So local people’s participation by Di and Nawa system will certainly help on conservation of biodiversity into National Parks.
Conclusion
The safeguard forest resources through community management is highly necessary. Reducing solid waste pollution is essential due to high flow of tourists.Increase in basic and social infrastructures of the local people is very much necessary, that may preserve and protect cultural heritages. Ethnic economic opportunities should be increase through tourism.And strengthening of buffer zone groups to ensure their own stake implementation is most important for ecological and biological conservation of the park, it is possible through indigenous practices through Di and Nawa system in upper Himalayan region.
The eight types of ecosystems, which are found in the area of Sagarmatha National Park is the main source of biodiversity. That is why the awareness in the societies of Namche, Khumjung and Chaunrikharka VDCs is very much essential. It can be conducted through local curriculum of school children, this right has been given by Department of Education ,Sanothimi Bhaktapur since 2009.Involvement of 46% of households in trekking and other business should be increased for conservation issues. Formation of buffer zone is not functioning well because of lack of young population’s participation. So new policy and program for youth should be introduced for conservation of nature and natural resources of the Sagarmatha National Park.
Strategies to reduce biodiversity losses in the area of Sagarmatha National park should focus on prioritizing places to work, understanding the causes of declines,and creating strategies that will be effecting in reducing threats. Although efforts focused on ecosystems and landscapes more likely to be effective in conserving multiple layers of biodiversity of Sagarmatha National Park areas, strategic approaches often act on the site or species level in alpine and sub-alpine region.
References
Bhuju,U.R. et al( 2007).Protected Areas ,Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book Protected Areas,Ramsar Sites,and World Heritage Sites,IUCN, Kathmandu.
BLAIKIE P., CAMERON J., SEDDON D., 1980. – Nepal in Crisis: Growth and Stagnation at the Periphery. New York, Oxford University Press.
BYERS A., 1987. – “An Assessment of Landscape Change in the Khumbu Region of Nepal Using Repeat Photography”. Mountain Research and Development, vol. 7, n°1, pp. 77-81.
DIXIT KM., TÜTING L., 1986. – Bikas-Binas. Development, The Change in Life an Environment of the Himalaya. Kathmandu Ratna Book Distribution, pp. 382-393.
DNPWC (2004). Annual Report. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal.
Groom,M.J.,Meffe,G.K.and Carrol,C.R.(2005).Focus on Primary Threats to Biodiversity,Principles of Conservation Biology,Sinauer Associates Inc,Massachusetts USA.

Kosi Tappu

Koshitappu_Priyansha
Abstract:
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve(KTWR) is the smallest wildlife reserve of Nepal. Itlies on the floodplains of the Sapta Koshi River in the south-eastern Terai. The popular reserve is set against the backdrop of the Eastern Himalaya, including Makalu (8475 m), the world's fifth highest mountain. Its main objective is to conserve the only remaining population of wild buffaloes. Illegal utilization of forest products, cattle grazing, poaching and river fishing in reserve area have become the headache for the Reserve.
Background
Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve(KTWR) lies on the floodplains of the Sapta Koshi River in the south-eastern Terai. The popular reserve is set against the backdrop of the Eastern Himalaya, including Makalu (8475 m), the world's fifth highest mountain. The reserve was established in 1976 to preserve habitat for the only remaining population of Wild buffalo, Arna (Bubalus arnee) with an area of 65km. later it extended its area to 176 sq.km (DNPWC) in 1980.
It is the smallest wildlife reserve of Nepal. It was declared Ramsar Site, a wetland of international significance in 17th December 1987 (IUCN, 1990).Government of Nepal has declared the buffer zone ( 173.5 sq. km ) surrounding the reserve in 2004. Koshi Tappu is a rectangular shaped reserve, approximately 10 km wide and 10 km long, stretching northward from the Nepal/India border along the Sapta Koshi River.
Flora and Fauna of KTWR
Nelumbo nucifera Arna (Bubalus anree),
The principal habitats in the reserve include wetlands, grasslands and small patches of riverine forest. The last surviving population of Wild buffalo is found here. The estimated population of wild buffalo is around 159 individuals is dwindling. They are distinguished from domestic buffalo by their much bigger horns. The reserve is also home to around 20 other animal species such as Hog deer,Wild boar , Spotted deer, Nilgai, and Rock Python. In addition, there are medium sized predators such as fishing cat, jungle cat, and civets.
According to DNPWC around 441 species of birds-many seen now here else in Nepal (14 endemic species)- have been recorded, including 20 duck species , 2 Ibis species, white tailed stonechat, striated marsh warbler, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, and the endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican. The Koshi River is home to 80 species of fish. The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin have been recorded in the river as well. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting place for many migratory birds, containing 87 winter and trans-Himalayan migratory species. During winter, many of the migratory birds can be seen on the Koshi Barrage and on the river channel. Migration usually peaks around mid March. Much wildlife visits these areas during dusk and dawn.
Flora 514
Birds 485
Mammals 31
Fish 200
Amphibians 11
Reptiles 24
Butterflies 77
Source: Bhuju, 2007
Buffer zone management
KTWR is surrounded by a buffer zone of 173 km2, in which over 80,000 people live, most of whom are dependent on the natural resource base for their livelihoods. The Darwin Initiative project is assisting local communities around KTWR in managing buffer zone wetlands for sustainable livelihoods, whilst enhancing wetland biodiversity, thus reducing the pressure on resources within KTWR (Thapa, 2009).
Issues of KTWR
1. Feral cattle and grazing pressure in the reserve area
2. Over- fishing
3. Human- wildlife conflict
4. Encroachment
5. Genetic erosion of wild buffalo due to inbreeding
6. Ever changing river course
Challenges for KTWR
a) High population pressures and prevailing poverty;
b) Weak institutional, administrative, planning and management capacity;
c) Lack of integrated land and water use planning;
d) Inadequate data and information management
e) Inadequate policies and strategies for biodiversity conservation.
f) Conservation of the reserve
g) Management of Buffer zone
h) Implementing the NPWC Act
Problems of KTWR
a) Destruction of crops by the wild buffaloes.
b) Illegal utilization of forest products, cattle grazing, poaching and river fishing in reserve area.
c) Pollution in Koshi River
d) Stone and sand Collection
Conservation Trials
The NPWC Act 1973 was amended for the fifth time in 2004. (DNPWC)The Government of Nepal and the Government of India have signed a joint resolution to join hands to conserve biodiversity including tigers, and strengthen ecological security in the trans-boundary region in 29 July 2010. Beside India, Nepal has also signed with China for the protection in the field of Forestry and Biodiversity conservation.
Conservation Policies
a) Manage and conserve species and their population
b) Conservation through public awareness and participation
c) Provide skill based training to the people
d) Tourism to increase the income of local people
e) Priority to subsistence needs of people
f) Priority to women, dalit, and poor in the participatory development process
g) Promote alternative energy so that burden on natural forest for fuel is reduced
Lesson learnt so far
KWTR is following ‘top-down’ model without consulting the local people who largely depended on the reserve’s resources for their livelihoods (Bajracharya, Gurung, & Basnet, 2007). It is causing conflicts between the reserve authorities and local people. So, the reserve has learnt that there must be participatory interest in which the local people can also be mobilized for the protection of biodiversity. It has also learnt that without addressing the interest of local people the objective of protecting wildlife reserve cannot be achieved. The reserve has also learnt that the certain amount of revenue should be invested for the management of buffer zone.
Conservation Critiques
The rigidness behavior has become the main problem for the reserve. People nearby reserve directly depend on the forest resources of the reserve. Inspite of security provided by Nepal Army, people still do the illegal activities like cattle grazing, poaching, encroachment, collecting firewood etc (Limbu & Karki, 2003). So that the forest is being cleared up.
Ecosystem Approach
The concept of ecological approach should be introduced in Nepal. Ecosystem approach is the approach where the concerns for ecological, socioeconomic and institutional are satisfied. Protection of biodiversity, people of buffer zone and the effective management must be linked for the achievement of the objective. The main objective of protected areas is to conserve the biodiversity. To conserve biodiversity, local people must be made aware and to make them aware there must be effective implementations of the laws.
After recognizing the threats to the reserve, taking local people’s need into consideration, an ecosystem approach is recommended for KTWR. Rather focusing on the reserve only, activities should be encouraged for ecosystem protection in an integrated way by controlling or regulating illegal activities in the area, providing alternative opportunities for the locals, promoting skill based activities.
Adaptive Management
Lessons should be learned from these activities as part of an adaptive management scheme. The role of human beings as part of the ecosystems should be reemphasized as well as the short and long term consideration of human actions. Conservation areas of Nepal is following the command and control approach to decision making. Only the people of policy level make the decision and order the officers to implement and they impose those decision as the order from the top. Rather adaptive management is to be accepted like participating the locals in the decision making process.
U.S natural resource agencies have begun to recognize the need to build more flexibility into local management experiments. We also can do the same. For example we can review the Acts time to time and change them accordingly if necessary.
Metapopulation
Metapopulation is a term used for the network of sub-populations of a species in dispersed and disjointed patches. In KTWR, there is the movement of animals and from one place to another via land. Birds migrate there from different places and animals also move here and there within the transboundry of Nepal and India. However, in case of marine ecosystem, due to the construction of Koshi barrage, the aquatic ecosystem is at risk. The barrage has fragmented the ecosystem into downstream and upstream (Chaudhary, 2007). The species move downstream through the Koshi Barrage during high water periods but the high currents prevent them from swimming upstream through the barrage.
Conclusion
(Nepali, 2006)KWTR is an area established for the conservation and management of plants and wildlife and their habitat. It is giving its full effort to conserve the endangered species. It is also promoting the awareness programs for the local people so that there will not be the over exploitation of the resources and illegal hunting of species will be stopped. It is also promoting the lives of people through buffer zone management.
Recommendations
The following recommendations have been made on the basis of findings of the study’
Poaching is serious problem created by local people. Patrolling management should be improved to reduce illegal activities and should be provided with modern equipments. Education on the importance of reserve, conservation of natural resources should be given them time to time so they can realize the importance of reserve for present and future generation. KTWR should give more emphasis on use of alternative source energy so that the pressure on forest will be reduced. The law should be strict and same type of punishment should be given both to high class and low class smugglers.

Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve

Dhorpatan _Tara
Introduction
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 Besides national parks and wildlife reserves His Majesty's Government of Nepal has also set aside a hunting reserve at Dhorpatan where controlled hunting of some species is allowed.
Area sq km Established Date Altitude
m Joining Districts/ Himal Range Pasture land Hotels/ Lodge
1,325 1987 (2031 B.S) 2,850-7,000 Rukum, Myagdi and Baglung (dis)
Dhaulagiri Himal range(west),
Putha, Churen and Gurja Himal(North) more than 50% 2
FLORA
Species Flowering Plants Vascular Plants Gymnosperms Dicots Monocots.
1150 (BPP1995) 36 58 7 43 8
The hard wood forest like Fir, Pine, Birch, Rhododendron, Hemlock, Oak, Juniper, and Spruce are found here.
FAUNA
Fauna Mammals Birds Herpeto Species
18 137 2
Protected by CITES 16
Protected by NPWC Act 1973 7 3
Birds IUCN Status
Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) Least Concern
Cheer pheasantCatreus Wallichii) Vulnerable
Game Animals like Himalayan Thar, MouseHare, Goral Serow, Himalayan Black Bear, Barking Deer, Wild Boar, Blue Sheep, Langur are found in DHR. Musk Deer, Wolf, Red Panda, Cheer Pheasant are in Endangered Category.
Figure 2 Entrance TO DHR
Nepal is a country of vast repository of priceless biodiversity. In spite of various efforts of Government of Nepal and other partner organizations on conservation in the past few decades still there are manifold challenges. Deforestation, degradation and fragmentation of wildlife habitat and biotic pressure in remaining forests of the country pose threat to effective biodiversity conservation. Actually, the protected areas are the last refuges for the wildlife. Despite the threats, Nepal has done a commendable work by setting 19.70% of the total area
of the country for conservation. In addition, there are initiations to declare the area in and around Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve as buffer zone.
Issue, Problem, Challenge
1. Due to human activities the biological corridor of Protected areas become decline.
2. People are totally depending upon forest products.
3. There is no control of illegal hunting and trade of different valuable parts of animals.
4. There is increasing activities of deforestation for the habitat of growing population.
5. An increasing pressure on forest and pasture resources from livestock and trade in non-timber forest products.
6. Inadequate data for endangered species.
7. Unsustainable use of natural resources.
8. Limited park staff continues to pose problems for conservation of biodiversity.
9. Local communities have benefited from tourism revenues, although a growing number of tourists visit these areas.
10. Rapidly growing population, poverty, political disturbance and illiteracy are the major problems.
11. Lack of Education
12. Poverty elevation
13. Purchase illegal animal or plant products.
14. Disturbance of Flora and Fauna.
Nepal Strategy on Biodiversity Conservation 2002 and updated to 4thReport 2009.
Nepal signed the CBD on June 12, 1992.. The Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (NBS),2002 records the commitment of the government and the people of Nepal as well as to meet the obligations of the Convention, and to serve as an overall framework for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and biological resources. (MoEST) contributes to implement environment related projects, including Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) for eliminating and mitigating potential threats to biodiversity arising areas compared to 10% in urban areas), and with variables related with ecological zones (mountains, hills and Tarai), and caste and ethnicity (Janjatis and Dalits). In Nepal, Janjatis and Dalits have higherincidence of poverty than the national average (NPC 2005). The Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) Program jointly implemented by DNPWC, the Department of Forests (DoF), and WWF involves governmental and nongovernmental organizations, partner conservation organizations, local people, and a host of other stakeholders. The Program not only aims to provide habitat for the long-term survival of wildlife species in TAL but also to improve the socio-economic conditions of local people through economic conditions of local people through economic opportunities. The TAL program is a long term initiative, its vision extending beyond a 50 year horizon.
Rule and Regulations
1. An entry of NRs 1000 should be paid at the National Parks ticket counter at Nepal Tourism Board ,KTM
2. Camping inside the park should be made only at the designated areas.
3. Travel within the park between sunset and sunrise is prohibited.
4. Visitors should be self sufficient in fuel supply (kerosene). The use of firewood is strictly prohibited.
5. Rubbish must be packed out, buried or disposed of in designated areas.
6. Carry out non biodegradable items such as plastic bags and bottles.
Punishment
(1) Any person who illegally kills or injures, sells, purchases or transfers or obtains or keeps purchases or sells rhinoceros horn or musk-pods or the fur of snow leopard as well as trophies of any other protected wildlife, shall be punished with a fine ranging from fifty to one hundred thousand rupees or an imprisonment ranging from five years to fifteen years or both.
(2) Any person who kills or injures any other protected wildlife other than those mentioned in sub-section shall be punished with a fine ranging from forty to seventy five thousand rupees, or face an imprisonment ranging from 1-10 years or both.
(3) Any person who hunts and kills or injures wildlife other than birds and fish inside a national
park, strict nature reserve or wildlife reserve without obtaining a license shall be punished with a fine ranging from one thousand rupees and ten thousand rupees or face imprisonment ranging from 6months -2 years or both.
(4) Any person who hunts and kills or injures protected birds shall be punished with a fine ranging from five hundred rupees and ten thousand rupees or face imprisonment ranging from
3months and 2years or both.
(5) Any person who hunts and kills or injures birds other than protected birds inside a national park, strict nature reserve or wildlife reserve without obtaining a license shall be punished with
a fine ranging from two hundred rupees and ten thousand rupees, or face imprisonment ranging between 3 months and 2 years or both.
(6) Punishment for accomplices, In case any person who knowingly helps any person in committing any offense punishable under this Act, such accomplice shall be punished with half the punishment to be given to the actual offender.
According to chapter 3 the author mention the strategy involves dividing the landscape into zones that range from total protection to what we can term “biodiversity sacrifice areas “In the term of co-operridor et.al describe the variations of the basic model and focus discussion on Legacy Project in California.
Haufler viewed positive and negative approach in the case of bioreserve strategy. Advantages of this approach are simplicity, applicability at any scale, familiarity of the zoning concept and explicit provision of areas for human uses. Disadvantages include legal difficulties, inflexibility, need for large bases, political obstacles to new land use restrictions and lack of experience with large scale applications of the concept.
Most efforts aimed at conserving biodiversity have been focused on protecting individual population or species many nations such as Australia, India, Canada, South Africa and Brazil mandate protections that are modeled in part after the US. Endangered species Act including creating and maintaining a list of endangered and threatened species on a global scale, the IUCN ‘S Red list of Threatened species also focuses worldwide attention and threats at the species level.
To understand the fluctuations population and conservation we must understand the links between demographic processes: BIDE (Birth, Immigration, Death and Emigration) and the environments in which population exist. Driving population change can be essential for the conservation of many species.
The idea that population dynamics may depend on the relative quality of good and poor habitats which is called source and sink dynamic and now recognized as an important concept in conservation biology. These terms are also used to describe the population found in these habitats source .Population are those found in source habitats and sink population are those found in sink habitats.
According to Groom Traditionally when animal species were perceived to be so endangered or even extinct the approach was to save just what is there sometimes may be just a few individuals as in the case of ex-situ rehabilitation of America corridor .What is the level of a species under threat is decided by IUCN Red list which is protected legally by in country legislation like the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 list or CITES for regulation of trade in endangered species.
Beyond this approach is an effort to in-situ protection of wildlife in their natural habitats if possible. In the modern context theses habitats are fragmented and degraded even with legislative protections .So population of animals are dispersed through a network of fragmented patches in the background of human act landscape mostly agriculture or urban development.
Conclusion
The only hunting reserve in the country, Dhorpatan is renowned for the Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). It is listed least concern by IUCN red list. The Himalayan Thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) is an evolutionary primitive form of wild goat, popularly known as Jharal in Nepali .The average groups size of Thar varied from 3 to 16 in different sub habitats holding different numbers of Thar. DHR have 14 types of ecosystem and 10 types of vegetation. It has three types of physio-graphic zone; High Himal ( above 5000m), High Mountain (3000 to 5000 m) ,Mid hills (1000 to 3000 m). This Hunting Reserve is in viii ( Multiple Use Management) category of IUCN.
Recommendation
For the conservation and management of endangered species such asMusk Deer, Wolf, Red Panda, Cheer pheasant there is a need of packaging conservation programmes that are multifaceted and work for all species of wildlife. Conservation should not be limited to PA only It should be operated in a larger scale within human landscapes. Rules and Regulation must be followed to control the illegal trade.

Bhawal National Park

Bhawal National Park_Mursheda
Introduction
Bangladesh has 21 Protected Areas which cover an area of 243,677 ha and include 8 National Parks (NP), 7 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 1 Game Reserve, and 5 other conservation sites. National Park, as defined in Article 2 of the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 [1], is comparatively large areas of outstanding scenic and natural beauty with the primary object of protection and preservation of scenery, flora and fauna in the natural state to which access for public recreation and education and research may be allowed. Bhawal National Park, about 40 km North of Dhaka (location 24°01' N, 90°20' E), besides the National Highway N3, is one such protected area having an area of 5022 ha. It was established as an NP in 1974, but was not declared officially until 1982.
The topography of Bhawal NP is characterised by low hills about 3.0 to 4.5 m high; the soil is yellow-red comprising sandy clay mixed with magniferous iron ores. The area experiences an annual rainfall of about 2500 mm. The vegetation is semi-deciduous, the upper canopy contains the deciduous species. Sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant species of the upper canopy. There are a total of 221 species of plants [2]. The diversity of fauna in Bhawal NP is low. Species include fox (Vulpes bengalensis), jackal (Canis aureus), small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and black-naped hare (Lepus nigricollis). The diversity of avi-fauna is rich, although important species like the Common Peafowl have become extinct from the forest.
Bhawal is not an important wildlife conservation area but, being close to a large urban centre, it is valued for recreational purposes. The number of visitors exceeds 1.5 million a year. Apart from that, some 2000 people reside and cultivate land in an area of about 844.5 hectares inside the National Park. However, the Forest Department has recently earmarked a silent zone inside the National Park. In addition, they introduced some wildlife, e.g., peacock, deer, python, fishing cat, etc. The government, on 15 May 1990, banned any permanent or temporary lease of land in the forest area and ordered cancellation of all previous lease orders. But as many as 196 industries and other installations have been established since the forest was declared a national park. The law enforcement is generally performed by the forest officials. In case of relatively minor offences, the Divisional Forest Officer (DFO) has the right to accept of compromise offer from the offenders and charge compensation equivalent to the damage done to the forest plus the value of the forest produce. When the offence involves a large area of the forest, the offenders are arrested, the produce and equipment seized, and the case is referred to a Magistrate's court for trial. The government agencies responsible for enforcement of legislation is primarily the Forest Department [3]. For controlling wildlife trade in Bangladesh, apart from the Forest Department, Customs and Excise Department, and Chief Controller of Import and Export are responsible for implementing the laws [4].
Problems, Issues, and Challenges in Conservation
In the early part of the twentieth century, Bhawal sal forest was a massive tract extending up to Madhupur. Until the independence from the British rule, Bhawal forest as well Madhupur forest were owned by the Zamindars of Bhawal and of Natore respectively. They settled people in and around low lands. In the process, much of the forest area was cleared for cultivation. In 1949, the government at the time abolished the land ownership of zamindars. But the people settled inside the forests did not move out. The illicit felling of trees remained unabated even after that.
An area of 5022 hectares was designated by the government of independent Bangladesh in 1974. However, the steps taken by the Forest Department could not deter the depletion of forest resources in the past years. In fact, about 90% of the existing sal trees are regenerated. In the past, sal forests occupied most of the central and western parts of the country but now occur only in scattered and degraded patches. The satellite photographs of this tract in 1997 and 2010, shows the difference during the period.
Figure 1: Location of Bhawal NP shown here on the right side of the Dhaka-Mymensingh Highway (Courtesy of: Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS), Dhaka)
In 1994, the government enacted National Forestry Policy [3] with a view to expanding the degrading forest area of the country to about 20% of the total land area. In 1998, hunting of wildlife was banned in all protected areas including the Bhawal tract. But, by that time, the fauna had already been destroyed. Existing rules allow nothing but planting of trees only in Bhawal NP. The government's recent decision to issue environment clearance certificate for industries on privately owned lands inside the Bhawal NP is a clear violation of this [5].That will in effect legalise about 300 industrial units already existing in the area and allow setting up of industrial units inside the national park in future. Given the type of industrial units that are already established there, including dyeing factories, not only that will result in a gradual depletion of the forest area, the local flora and fauna will be severely threatened also as a consequence. The government's earlier stance of regenerating forest areas to 20% of the total land area has been negated by this decision.
A high-powered committee, on the other hand, recommended stringent legislation aimed to conserve this natural forest and its rich biodiversity, considered vital for preserving the ecosystem of the region. The committee also suggested a ban on any constructions or setting up of commercial and other establishments on privately owned land in core area of the NP. It asked for immediate acquisition of private land in the core area of the park and recovery of illegally occupied forest land.
The main problem of government actions not taking any effects is that the inhabitants in the protected areas were left out in decision making processes and policy matters. This resulted in the marginalization and displacement among the people. Many researchers believe that leaving out people living in and adjacent to the park area should be given viable economic opportunities for living and be involved in the decision making process [6]. Otherwise, the sustainability of the ecology in and around the park will always be endangered.
Conservation of Bhawal National Park The national parks set up in Bangladesh were the results of unilateral decisions by the government. Recent studies established the fact that locals living inside and around the protected areas are important stakeholders in conserving the ecosystems. The systems of conserving ecosystems in all national parks in England and Wales and some in Germany and other European countries have evolved as a result of interactions between people and nature. In the Fifth Amendment of The National Parks and Conservation of Wildlife Act (NPWCA) 1973 in 2005 in neighbouring country, Nepal, the government of that country has accommodated the provision of handing over management responsibility of protected areas to local communities [7]. The people living nearby or within the protected areas have benefitted from the development where it requires local community participation in its various activities and services. The people in these areas can earn a decent living from ecotourism industry. This was possible due to the collaborative management of protected areas by the authority and people concerned. Unfortunately, this type of shared views are totally absent in most developing countries. Participation of local community is minimal in the management of protected areas. The reasons are, firstly, the mindset of the forest officials, i.e., government is that human activities are incompatible with ecosystem conservation; secondly, there is the lack of confidence among the locals for the fact that the government does not care about their well being. Discussions between this researcher with the locals living in and around Bhawal National Park, tour organisers and the park officials also portrayed similar facts.
In view to these facts, the following steps could be taken to conserve the ecosystems and maintain the sustainability of Bhawal National Park:
• The forest department should try to build trust among the locals by disseminating and exchanging information and integrate them in the implementation of management objectives.
• Following the models used in the European countries, the locals can be encouraged to engage in ecotourism in Bhawal NP. In order to do that park officials have to identify the local leaders and through them educate people about the advantages through workshops, and group discussions.
• Achieving the confidence of the people, however, is not that easy after so many years of "deprivation". As a first step, locals can be included in the decision making processes in increasing numbers and be provided with adequate and actual information about the methods of achieving sustainable use of the park resources.
• The policy makers may consider handing over the ecotourism sector to the locals in the long run like other industries and disseminate this information and the exact processes of reaching this goals in the shortest possible time. This should motivate the people becoming more involved in the activities set out in the policies. They would be responsible for the safety of the resources while performing their daily activities.
• At present, forestry department seriously lacks adequate manpower to enforce and implement various activities of management. Local people, in this respect, can be effectively involved in gathering information, the park officials can compile them and eventually share with the communities. Locals can even provide feedbacks on the management approaches and its implementation.
• The communities must have the right to intervene in the decision-making process, and should be able to express their views and opinions.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Bangladesh, being a signatory to many international treaties on Protection of Biodiversity and Wildlife Conservation, protection of Bhawal National Park is obligatory. However, in many instances, these treaties as well as the legislations enacted by the government are not being followed properly. Encroachment of forest lands for setting up of industries and other destructive economic activities as well as illicit removal of forest produce are severely endangering the biodiversity and ecological balance of the area and its surrounding regions. Forest officials' unwillingness in the one hand, and mistrust of the locals on the other, are identified to be the two major reasons for the depletion of the resources in the area. Participatory management and involving local stakeholders in ecotourism by educating them on sustainability seems to be the best option for the conservation of the protected area. Since the Forest Department does not have adequate manpower, it may seek help from NGOs and assistance from donor agencies. A study in co-management conducted in 2008 in Madhupur National Park by an NGO "Nishorgo" [8] supports this idea.

Beeshazar Tal

Beeshazar Tal_Tilak
Introduction
Beeshazar Tal is a Ramsar site (number 1313 and WDPA code: 901297) in central Nepal. It is located 8 km south from Tikauli on the east-west highway in Gitanagar VDC of Chitwan district encompassing two municipalities, Bharatpur and Ratnanagar, and two VDCs, Gitanagar and Bachhauli Coordinates. This Ramsar site was established in August 2003 which covers an area of 3,200 ha in the buffer zone of Chitwan National Park adjacent to Khageri Irrigation canal and is situated between the Mahabharat mountain range to the north and the Siwalikrange to the south at an altitude of 286 metres,( Bhuju, 2007). The area of Beesazar Tal to be 100 ha and it’s maximum depth is 6 miters and average depth is 3 miters (Bhandari 1998b).This Ramsar site forms an extensive oxbow lakesystem, typical of the tropical Inner Terai area. The surrounding forest area is home to an estimated 100,000 people who farm and fish in the lake.
Fauna:- The forested wetland provides excellent habitat as a waterhole and wildlife corridor for critically endangered and vulnerable species. The area records 21 species of mammals, 13 species of reptiles, 273 species of birds and 17 species of fish, among them 4 of mammals, 3 species of fish are in threatened and 2 species of reptiles are endangered.
Flora:- Land use patterns in the total wetlands site area include 30% open forests, 40% dense forests, 15% grass lands, and 15% pasturelands. Sal dominated forests exist in the surrounding areas of the lake. The area records 37 vascular plants: one pteridophyte, 26 dicots, and 10 monocots.
Major problems and issues
Wetlands have been degraded in many places due to conversion, pollution, invasion of alien species, encroachment and sedimentation. The major problems to the wetlands are diversion, drainage, and development. Beesazar tal is a very important wetland for biodiversity conservation in Nepal. It is home to millions of migratory birds, fish, amphibians, insects, plants and trees. But this wetland is highly under pressure from adverse anthropogenic and natural factors, keeping associated biodiversity under threat. Rapid growing population, poverty, political disturbance, and illiteracy are the major problems. Deforestation, degradation and fragmentation of wildlife habitat and biotic pressure forest of the wetland pose threat to effective biodiversity conservation. The major problems are summarized as follows:
Over-exploitation
The surrounding forest area of Beesazar wetland is home to an estimated 100,000 people who farm and fish in the lake and surrounding areas through a grant of annual fishing contracts. This site is under pressure of over harvesting of non timber forest products. There is unsustainable use of resources like water, firewood, fish, and wetland birds. Marshy and waterlogged area is generally converted into rice field and fishery ponds. In urban area they are filled-up and then used for real state or other purposes.
Pollution
Pollution is the other serious problems of wetland. People are using as dumping sites to the wetland area and throwing domestic and industrial sewage, waste water and rubbish. Leaching of inorganic fertilizer and pesticide from farmland, and poisoning birds and fishes are found in Beeshazari Tal.
Biodiversity loss Poaching, habitat loss and fragmentation, invasion of habitat by alien plant species, illegal hunting and trapping of animals and birds, pollution of water are noticed in the wetland area. Due to over grazing, and conversion into other uses Beesazar wetland has lost their biodiversity.
Invasion
Like other wetland, Beeshazar Tal is also infested with alien invasive plants. This is the serious problem for conservation of wetland and their resources in Nepal. Water hyacinth (jal kumbhi, eichornia crassipes), Kumbhika (pistia stratiotes), Jaljambhu, Besharm, Banmara and Kuraute grasses are the main invasive in this wetland.
Legal and Technical issues
Legal and policy issues should include clear cut roles and responsibilities of local communities for the translation of National Wetland Policy provisions into actions through legislative measures. Technical issues include documentation of wetland related indigenous knowledge system, coordination among various public and private institutions, research and capacity building. These types of issues are not clearly identifying by the policy maker and there are various confusions on the field of conservation of protected are in Nepal.
Ecological issues
Ecological issues include building the understanding of ecological functioning and the application of ecological principles in decision making process. The current issues and future strategies of wetland conservation require a holistic view, keeping with the wise use of wetland resources for human welfare and economic upliftment as focal thrust areas.
Poverty and encroachment
The most pressing issue for Nepal is poverty, which means that most resources are allocated towards education, employment, social welfare and development, with less allocated for conservation and wetlands. Certainly, more resources and new initiatives are needed. New and innovative approaches need to be applied to wetland management. Also, there should be increased financial investment in wetland management. Socio-economic issues include valuation, benefit sharing, investment and mobilization of financial resources, integration of poor peoples’ choices and voices in wetland management. Many wetland have been in the state of claustrophobia primarily due to human intervention for human welfare.
Wetland related policies in Nepal
Nepal has presented its commitment to wetland conservation, specially the conservation of wetland habitats of international importance, by signing the Ramsar Conservation. Present wetland conservation policy of Nepal is in conformity with the article 3(1) of the Ramsar Conservation. It is also in conformity with the directives of the signatory nations passed by the contracting parties in 1996, regarding the mobilization of local communities. Conservation and management of wetlands is reflected in various conservation policies of Nepal and its related activities are as follows shown in the table;
Policy Activities
National conservation Strategy (1988), It has emphasized the need for sustainable use of land and natural resources
The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector 1989, It emphasizes the need to involve people in natural resources management. The Plan stressed that land and forest resources should be managed and utilized on a long-term basis so as to conserve the forests, soil, water, flora, fauna and scenic beauty.
The Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan 1993 (NEPAP), NEPAP has timely prioritized the need to identify and protect biologically significant marshes, wetlands, and water bodies. This Plan is an effective initiative for the protection of wetlands and provides a good policy foundation.
The Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan-II (1998) (NEPAP-II) (NEPAP - II) to address cross-sectoral and sector plans which have identified fifty-four environmental projects related, directly or indirectly, to the forestry sector that include wetland conservation programs. It states that wetlands in Nepal have often been overlooked as an important habitat type and that many wetlands are suffering from land and water pollution while others have been drained and converted to agricultural land.
The Forestry Sector Policy (2000), The Forestry Sector Policy (2000) stated that the soil, water, flora and fauna constitute the main elements of forestry; nevertheless, it has been silent on wetland conservation.
Nepal Biodiversity strategy (2002), It explicitly addresses the wetland ecosystem. The strategy formulated a mixture of strategies to safeguard the wetland resources. Its implementation plan for 2006 has outlined integrated wetland management as priority projects (P-III) among the thirteen projects that will be implemented during the first phase of the plan (2006-2010) with the objective of developing integrated management plans at the watershed level to conserve wetland biodiversity and critical sites.
National Wetland Policy 2003 Emphasis is given to conserving wetlands by involving the local people, promoting awareness, using wetland resources wisely, preventing and controlling pollution and invasive species.. The policy stated that the legal arrangements to make the wetland management activities effective should be formulated. The need to formulate acts, regulations and guidelines to ensure the jurisdiction and the capabilities of the bodies responsible for wetlands conservation and management is realized from all sides.
Wetland related legislations in Nepal
Wetlands are not defined as a separate category of ecologically important areas under National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 and other resource laws. Wetland related laws are as follows;
a. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973, b. Aquatic Animal Protection Act 1961,
c. Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982, d. Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 1982,
e. Electricity Act 1992, f. Forest Act 1993,
g. Environmental Protection Act 1996, h. Local Self Governance Act 1999
Conservation critique
Wetlands are important and essential for the health, welfare and safety of people. It is also very important for conservation of nature. Making balance of ecosystem in surface of the earth, wetlands play a vital role. It provides home for many animals, birds, insects, plants as well as other living organism in the environment.Wetlands are amongst the world’s most productive environments and provide a wide array of benefits. Wetlands are necessary for biodiversity conservation. Wetlands are not only important for biodiversity conservation, but also very important for human being. It provides various environmental services for human and others living creature. Wetlands have now proven to be the most productive ecosystem on earth. Wetlands provide many benefits – environmental, economic and social. Therefore, the slogan for this year 2010 World Wetland Day has been aptly framed “Caring for Wetlands – An answer to Climate Change.” For wetlands conservation, active participation of the communities is a must, and the active participation will happen only when the communities are aware of its values and concerns.
Since the accession to the Ramsar Conservation in 1987, Nepal has made the following achievements in wetland conservation:
• Designation of nine Ramsar sites,
• Preparation of national lakes inventory and strategic planning,
• Pilot project on collaborative management,
• Integration of wetland into biodiversity strategy and development plan,
• Public awareness campaigns,
• National Wetland Committee Formation,
• Mainstreaming of wetlands into production sectors, etc.
Beeshazar Tal is one of the most important wetland in Nepal. It lies within the Barandabhar forest corridor is an important wetland for birds, wildlife, and aquatic species. Beeshazar Tal is in the buffer zone area of Chitwan National Park which is surrounded by forest of Sal Shorea robusta, Vellornudiflora, Simal Bombasx ceiba, Sindur Mallotus philippenis and other various shrubs. World’s most threatened birds and fish are found in this lake. It provides various environmental services. People of these buffer zone areas are enjoying the environmental services by the Beeshazar Tal. This lake is very important for biodiversity, so Government of Nepal has declared this lake as a Ramsar conservation area and had lunched many protection activities.
Although, Government of Nepal has presented its commitment to wetland conservation, specially the conservation of wetland habitats of international importance, by signing the Ramsar Conservation and developed conservation policies as well as legislations, but it doesn’t working properly. Beeshazar tal was in a jeopardized condition due to fisherman, crocodile hunters, firewood collectors and edible vegetation collector eg nigro Dryopteris sp. Koiralo bauhinia variegate and kurilo Asparagus spacies. Noise pollution by vehicales inside Barandabhar Forest was another responsible factor for the disturbances of birds in the Beeshazar Tal (Ghimire, 2009). There is not any special legislation for the conservation of Beeshazar Tal and having laws and rules are not using properly. Government of Nepal has lunched various programs to protect this area and large amount of money is spending, but the return is not satisfactory. Lack of good planner and qualified personal of the government bodies, wetland conservation sectors are facing various problems.
Without participation of local level people, any plan and program may not be successes. National Wetland Committee is not functioning properly in the Beesazar Tal. There is a gap between government bodies and local level people in the Beeshazar Tal protected area. Even government has already declaredLocal Self Governance Act, 1999, provides immense autonomy to the District Development Committees (DDCs), municipalities and Village Development Committees (VDCs) and they are required to plan and act for protection of forests, environment, and conservation of biodiversity but this act is not functioning accordingly it objectives. Indigenous knowledge is very useful for environment management but Beeshazar Tal Ramsar site people’s indigenous knowledge is not used by the Wetland Conservation Committee. Regarding the management and wise use, indigenous peoples and local communities who live in areas adjacent to Beeshazar tal should have their rights respected by increasing their involvement in wetland management activities. Their relevant indigenous knowledge should be documented fully.
Aquatic Animals Protection Act 1961 recognizes the value of wetlands and aquatic animals and identifies as offence activities to introduce poisonous, noxious or explosive materials into a water source or to destroy any dam, bridge, fish ladder, or water system with the intent of catching or killing aquatic life butBeeshazar tal in a jeopardized condition due to fisherman, crocodile hunters. Hence, it needs to use the legislation with their best perform in wetland conservation sectors like Beeshazar Tal and other Ramsar site in Nepal.
Conclusions
Government commitment to increase the coverage of Ramsar sites is essential. Moreover, success requires engaging local communities and developing a common vision. The Ramsar sites as well as nationally important wetland sites that lie outside the protected areas should be declared as environment protection areas and/or protected watersheds. The Government of Nepal has initiated the move for protection and manageme of wetlands. In spite of various efforts of Government of Nepal and other partner organizations on conservation in the past few years, still there are manifold challenges. Rapid growth population, poverty, illiteracy political disturbance are major problems. Habitat loss, pollution of water, encroachment, invasion alien plant species, illegal fishing and tortoise hunting are major threats of Beeshazar Tal wetland conservation. Unless participation of local level people Governmental bodies could not get solution of these problems. Therefore, the local communities in the Beeshazar Tal as well as other Ramsar sites must be motivated and mobilized to work together, utilize their indigenous knowledgeso that they can improve the wetland ecology and uplift their living styles. Finally, the following activities can be recommended for conservation of Beeshazar Tal:-
¢ Local level communities should be participated on wetland conservation,
¢ Indigenous knowledge must use for conservation management,
¢ Special laws and regulation should be made for wetland conservation.
¢ Water pollution and alien invasion plant should be controlled.

Ghodadhodi Lake

Ghodadhodi Lake_Suna
Introduction
Ghodaghodi Lake Area is one of the nine Ramsar sites of Nepal, which was designated a Ramsar site on 13 August, 2003. It is a freshwater oxbow lake and also the largest natural lowland lake of Nepal. It lies in Kailali district of far-western region. Ghodaghodi Lake Area includes 19 associated lakes & ponds and covers an area of 2563 hectares and is located at 205 meters above sea level. It lies in a very strategic location between Bardiya NP and Suklaphanta WR and alongside of the east- west highway.
Biodiversity value:
It has globally significant biodiversity value as it supports 11 globally threatened (IUCN Red list) faunal species. It also includes endangered species of Orchid, religiously important and threatened species of Lotus and rare wild rice. Lacustrine ecosystem, important wildlife corridor between the Terai and Siwalik Hills. Around 140 species of birds (migratory & resident) representing 16% of the national avifauna, 1% Asian population of Asian Cotton Pygmy goose, 9 species of herpeto- fauna including 3 species of Turtles, Around 29 species of fish, Over 450 species of plants. Native aquatic plant like; Water primrose and Bladderwort with unique physiological adaptation are found in this lake. The area is surrounded by tropical deciduous forest with dominant Sal and Saj (DNPWC, & Baseline Survey of CSUWN 2009).
Major Issues/Challenges
Ghodadhodi Lake area is spread over 3 VDCs of Kailali district namely; Darakh, Ramshikharjhala, & Sandepani. It covers around a total population of 57,064 from 8,249 Households. Tharu is the main ethnic community of this area. The adjoining communities depend on the lake for traditional fishing and agriculture; it serves irrigation for about 500ha of rice fields. Besides, lake area is used for buffalo wallowing, washing and bathing for human, mud collection for mud-mortar, grazing for livestock, forest product collection: leaf litter, green leaves, wild fruit, green vegetables, grass, fodder, firewood, timber etc, wetlands product collection: water chesnut, lotus leaves and rhizome, snails and others.
The Lake is an important religious shrine for Hindus dedicated to Ghodaghodi deity. There are several legends related to the origin of Ghodaghodi Lake, Tharu people call it Ghodighoda Taal, the divine form of Lord Laxmi and Vishnu. Every year, large religious gathering occurs during the occasion of Agan Panchami and Maghi. Tharu celebrates these festivals by worshipping and offering pigs & other animals in the Ghodaghodi temple. People also come to the temple to perform marriage and other functions. Besides, these days the temple area provides shelter for a number of hermits. In this scenario the lake has its own issues and challenges in conservation as per the objective. 1. Encroachment2. Siltation around the sub-catchment area of Ghodaghodi Lake 3 Excessive invasive sp , and vegetational succession. 4. Water diversion & excessive use of water of lake for different purpose 5. Reduced inflows into the lake: especially in Nakhrodhi Lake. 6) Eutrophication, succession and AIS 7. Over harvesting of resources etc.
Conservation Trails, Trends and policies
Since the accession to the Ramsar Convention in 1987, Nepal has made the following achievements in wetland conservation:
• Designation of nine Ramsar sites representing the major ecological zones
• Development of a participatory methodology for inventory
• Preparation of national lakes inventory and strategic planning
• Preparation of participatory site management plans
• Pilot project on collaborative management
• Integration of wetlands into national biodiversity strategy and development plan
• Networking of national and international organizations for wetlands
• Capacity building at both national and local levels
• Public awareness campaigns on wetlands
• Mainstreaming of wetlands into production sectors
• National Wetland Committee Formation
In addition, wetlands are important, and sometimes essential, for the health, welfare and safety of people who live in or near them. They are amongst the world’s most productive environments and provide a wide array of benefits.
Some institutions are working for the conservation of wetlands in GLC: 1) Terai Arc Landscape (TAL): is supporting in livelihood and conservation of community forest 2)GACAF (Ghodaghodi Area Conservation & Awareness Forum) & other CBOs: is working on Community Forests management and livelihood of the local communities and it is also contributing some efforts for GLC conservation by raising awareness to local communities & controlling wildlife poaching through community based anti-poaching unit with the active involvement of local youth 3) Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal(CSUWN) has launch various sustainable management program in GLC.
Water Mangement, Ghodaghodi Lake (December 2009) (Photo: CSUWN)
National Wetland Policy Nepal
Nepal has shown its commitment to wetlands conservation, specially the conservation of waterfowl habitats of international importance, by signing the Ramsar Convention. The present wetlands policy is in conformity with the § 3 (1) of the Convention. The policy is also in conformity with the directives of the signatory nations passed by the contracting parties in 1996, regarding the mobilization of local communities. The primary goal of the National Wetlands Policy is to conserve and manage wetlands resources wisely and in a sustainable way with local people’s participation.
Conservation Critique
The number of protected area increased rapidly world wide beginning in the early 1960’s. The total coverage of protected areas has more than double over the last decade to approximately 12.65% of earth land surface. There are mainly seven categories of protected area according to the IUCN 1994. Similarly protec1ed areas of all categories levels can also be classified as biosphere reserves, Ramsar wetland and old heritages sites. “The conservation and wise used of all wetland through local, regional and national action and international cooperation , as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world.” This is the convention mission of Ramsar site.
There are some critiques existing regarding the protected areas; strict protection versus multiple use. The role of strictly protected versus multiple use areas in meeting biodiversity conservation goal has been hotly debated. On the one hand, strictly protected areas that exclude hunting and other extractive uses are likely to be most efficient at meeting biodiversity conservation goals. Other side, exclusionary tactics may alienate people who benefit from extractive use of these resources, thus making multiple- use designations more amenable to achieving broad conservation goals. In the world there are 34036 protected areas and 3,569,820 km2 falls on the non category levels of the IUCN.
Management effectiveness of the protected areas means threats to protected areas must be eliminated if the protected areas are to meet their objectives and contribute to biodiversity conservation. For achieving this objective, all related people who are directly related with the protected areas should be honest and fully aware about the importance of the areas. Similarly nation’s sociopolitical aspects should not interfere the protection principles. But in reality we found various illegal hunting, poaching, encroachment, forest cutting, thus we found various critiques on effective management.
Another aspect of the critiques on approaches to planning reserve systems. When protected area is going to be establish at that time conservationist should remember its biodiversity significance. In the context of Nepal, many protected area’s history was connected with the governors’ people of the nation. There was no scientific study conducted before establishing the protected areas. Nearly 20% area is covered by protected areas in Nepal. This data is good but in the sense of the geographic representation we found unbalanced distribution of the protected areas in Terai, Mountain and Hilly region of Nepal. We are also facing the socio political influences on the conservation areas. There is still gap between policy and implementation process. We have no alternatives to the livelihood of indijenious people who are totally depended to the resources of the wetland.
Distribution of Wetlands
Wetlands occur everywhere, from the tundra to the tropics, and the plains to the plateaus. Depending upon the definitions and methods of delineations, areas and distributions of wetlands vary considerably (Table 1). With the advancement in wetland studies, areas have been estimated more and more accurately.
SN Source Areas (Million Hectares) Remarks
1 World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) 570 Approximately 6% of the Earth’s land surface – of which
2% are lakes, 30% bogs, 26% fens, 20% swamps, and
15% floodplains
2 1999 estimates of Ramsar COP7 (Seventh Conference
of the Contracting Parties) 748 to 778 The minimum could also be increased to a total of
between 999 and 4,462 million hectares when other
sources of information were taken into account
3 The 2004 Global Lakes and Wetlands Database 917 Generated through the use and incorporation of data
derived from proprietary products of the Environmental
Systems Research Institute, WCMC, and others.
4 The 1999 Global Review of Wetland Resources and
Priorities for Wetland Inventory 1,280 Estimated wetlands extent from national inventories
Sources: Ramsar, 2009; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Lehner, B. and Döll, P. (2004)
According to the reports of the National Lakes Conservation Development Committee, of the 5,358 lakes found in Nepal, 2,712 lakes (51%) are distributed below 500m, and 2,227 (42%) above 3,000 m. Only 419 lakes (<8%)>
Conclusion
Biodiversity conservation through protected areas is one approach of the sustainability of the specific biodiversity. Ghodaghodi Lake has also one specific biodiversity related to wetland biodiversity so it is listed on Ramsar site and started to conserve it according to the Ramsar site guidance. But, this wetland has also faced the several issues i.e. encroachment, over use of resources, conversion, pollution etc. For the solution of those issues one organization namely conservation and sustainable use of wetlands in Nepal (CSUWN.) has working Participatory management approach is going to be implemented by 2011 according to the national project manager of the CSUWN.

Chitwan National park

Chitwan National Park_Kalpana
Abstract: This paper highlights sustainable and effective biodiversity conservation in Chitwan National Park. CNP protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for present and future generations, exclude exploitation or occupation inimical to the purpose of designation of the area, and provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities. Nepal has adopted a community base approach to conservation management, including sharing of revenues from protected areas with local people living in the buffer zone around protected areas. The aim is to mitigate conflict among human and wildlife. This paper objective is to discuss the policies tried and implemented. New challenges, issues, solutions tried and recommendation for the Chitwan National Park. This paper also include Buffer zone management, sustainable development, biodiversity ecosystem services, REDD and climate change with PA. This paper discusses the evolution of conservation policy for buffer zone on Nepal. The efforts to put policy into practices are examined for empowerment and equity in benefit sharing and gender issues. Chitwan National park was study with help of field visit, direct observation, interviewed with officers of National Trust for Nature conservation, Sauraha. Beside this I reviewed many brochures, articles, annual reports, CBD report, magazines publish by DNPWC and also unpublished report from Biodiversity Conservation Center, Sauraha Chitwan.
Objective: To ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in natural ecosystem for present and future generation.To know the species richness and study habitat of flora and fauna.
Conclusion:The park is one of the glorious recognition of the country and full of varieties of natural resources thereby maintaining its potential to meet needs and aspirations of the present and future generation. Well destination for tourism and ecotourism.
Key words: community based conservation, biodiversity, buffer zone, Nepal, protected areas.

Introduction
Chitwan National Park is the first national park in Nepal and declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1984. The area of Chitwan National Park is 932 sq km2 and the area of buffer zone is 750 sq km2.The site code of the park and buffer zone is 805 and 303694 respectively. It has had been administered and governed through the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973.

The park is situated in the south central Nepal.in the subtropical lowland of the inner Terai. The Park consists of a diversity of ecosystems, including the Churia hills, ox-bow lakes, and the flood plains of the Rapti, Reu, and Narayani rivers.
A tourist destination famous for exotic fauna such as the Greater one-horned rhino, tiger, bison, gharial, migratory birds and elephant and crocodile breeding centers. The Ranital and Bishazari Tal (Lakes),Narayani and Rapti rivers, and other wetlands, and Bikram Baba’s temple, the Valmiki Ashram and other cultural sites are also found here. The numbers of faunal species found in the Park include 58 mammals, 539 birds, and 124 fish species. Thirteen species of mammals, six species of birds, and three species of reptiles are considered endangered and protected under Appendix I of NPWC Act 1973. The mammal species symbolic of CNP are the Greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), and Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) (DNPWC 2001a) Nine hundred and nineteen species of flora are estimated present in the Park, including endangered species such as the Tree fern, Cycas, Screw pine and several other orchids (BPP 1995)

Project Area: Fig no.1 Chitwan National Parka and Buffer Zone community forests CNP BZ

Problems, Issues and Challenges in conservation of CNP:
Major problems in CNP are habitat loss and fragmentation, Alien and invasive species in wetlands, grasslands and forests are creating serious problem to the park management ,for example Mikania Macrantha has cover 30% land of the national park which deplete of natural resources, poaching and illegal wildlife trade, pollution of water, Due to deforestation and unmanaged watershed in the upper part of CNP, flooding is occurring each year and illegal timber harvesting, haphazard and unmanaged tourism and climate change are the major problems.
Major Issues in CNP are illegal harvesting of bio-resources (plants, fishes and birds), Illegal entry and encroachment into the forest not fully controlled and vulnerable to poaching of large mammals like rhinoceros, tiger . Pollution of water due to municipal wastes and agricultural runoffs (nutrients and pesticides).Due to invasive species swamps and grasslands are being degradation which impact negatively to the rhino population. CNP have started to allocate incentives on CDM e.g. Biogas plant and solar panels. It is for reducing carbon emission and to save the environment. For this purpose, they get soft loan from bank in which government and buffer zone management subsidizes an effective amount. One needs registered land and its certificate to get the loan .This opportunity is now to enjoy only for land owning poor but not land less. So limited alternative energy resources for low income people. Due to modernization, indigenous people Tharu are deteriorating their religious culture which will be the problems in tourism activities. Degradation of wildlife habitat by excessive extraction of fuel woods by hotels and the grazing by their elephants inside the park. Pollution of water due to municipal wastes and agricultural runoffs (nutrients and pesticides) and inadequate garbage management system and the release of washing detergent in the river system by hotels but poor indigenous fishermen are blamed of the environmental problems. Research shows the biodiversity loss in the Narayani River is mostly by habitat destruction due to chemical and waste pollution. People living around protected areas, women, indigenous people and all other marginalized groups of the buffer zones were not satisfied and accessible for all facilities. Different acts, regulations and institutions are emerged in this course to improve the participation and decision making of the system on behalf of the people mostly women, poor and marginalized groups but in laws only. Most of the conservators are from so called upper class, caste, males by gender and west certified or trained. They think that nature could maintain if these problematic people surrounding parks hadn’t disturbed. In Chitwan National park, grass land is reducing. Tigers, Rhinos, Gaurigai etc are in more crisis due to habitat destruction and poaching. Proper mitigations aren’t applied. About 90% of the matured Gharial crocodiles are found to be lost last year although a lot of fund was used to apply ex-situ conservation measures. They are explaining the amount (30-50) % allocated to the buffer zone development but changes found aren’t studied. Those fund receivers are not happy. These issues are social and political if not addressed properly the objectives remain unachievable. The local, indigenous people are not problematic themselves they are made like that by the mainstream behaviors.
Chitwan National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage property since 1984 and one of the last surviving examples of natural ecosystems of the Terai region, faces many challenges. Maintaining balanced relationship between the park and the people has been one of the continuous challenges. Convincing local, indigenous , marginalized people about conservation of biodiversity is challenging. There is a clear lack of awareness at community level and make them aware is also challenging work. Communities living in the buffer zone around the park are playing an important role in its maintenance generating employment and income, but have also to deal with constraints that come with the World Heritage character of the site. Limited access and electricity supply in the Madi valley are facing various challenges for examples their crops are eaten by wild animals and while collecting fodder and fire woods they are attack by animals also. Chitwan National Park meets three criteria for the World heritage natural properties. The park is an outstanding example of geological processes and biological evolution as the last major surviving example of the natural ecosystems of the Terai region. The research on the natural history ecosystems of the area has been an important contribution to man’s knowledge of ecological systems in the Terai and challenges are to maintenance its properties.

Facilities
The park offers interesting sites and activities. The at the visiter centres at Sauraha provide fascinating information on wildlife and conservation programs .The women’s user groups souvenir shop offers a verities of handicrafts and other local products for gift. Elephant safari provides opportunity to get a closer view of endangered one horn rhinoceros. Elephant breeding centre in Khorsor sauraha gives information on domesticated elephant. The museum at Kasara , the park headquater, has Orphan animal centre and informative display . Bikram Baba, a Hindu religious is near by HQ. A short walk (1km) from park HQ there are Gharial Breeding Centre, Vultures conservation centre and Turtle Conservation centre.

Solution: Major Activities in CNP
Habitat Conservation and Management: Habitat management is an essential prerequisite to conserve and manage wildlife. Various efforts are on to manage wildlife habitat aiming to conserving the endangered species. Protection of natural habitats, creation of waterholes, wetland management and restoration, grassland management, clearing shrubs and uprooting of sapling are some of the specific activities. Padampur inhabitants are totally evacuation for grassland as extended habitat for rhinoceros and other ungulates. Promote the area as a prime wildlife viewing site.
Species Conservation and Monitoring: In CNP there are various conservation and breeding centers to conserve birds and animals and monitoring is also regular for examples Gharial Breeding Centre Turtle Conservation centre etc.
Anti-Poaching Activities: Different INGO, NGO, CBO, National park staff, army, volunteers and even local people are against poaching. One of the biggest successes of the TAL project has been its ability to mobilize local people to take up active voluntary conservation work and change their attitude towards poaching.
Buffer Zone Management: Buffer zones are defined as peripheral zones of protected areas. The propose of buffer zone is to protect the environment, conservation of nature and prevent violence. Objective of buffer zone is to promote participatory conservation. To developed self reliance on daily need forest products of buffer zone communities. The surrounding buffer zone provides for human uses such as farming or settlement while protecting the core ie park. To manage and minimize wildlife causes vulnerability in local communities and to promote livelihood through community development and income generating activities in buffer zone. In CNP 50% revenue is gone to buffer zone communities for natural resource management and community development.
Conservation Education: 10% allocated budget is gone for conservation education in CNP. Eco club, school conservation activities, study tour, awareness campaign and conservation extension are implemented to brings all sectors of the communities in the main stream of conservation. Cultural and Religious Site Conservation: There are a number of religion-cultural sites in the park and the buffer zone of CNP. Some of the renowned ones are Bikram Baba, Godak Baba, Panch-Pandav, Balmiki Ashram, Siddha Baba, Someswor Kalika, Shiva Linga, Baikuntha Baba, Sita-Mai, Kalika and so on. Of them Balmiki Ashram has especial significance not only due to its high spiritual and archaeological value. Renovate religious sites to provide better protection, and coordinate with the Department of Archaeology for investigation, excavation and maintenance of the religious sites
Infrastructure Development: A number of hotels, resorts, and lodges have also been managed outside and inside the national park. Targeting the upcoming Nepal Tourism Year 2011 (NTY 2011) national campaign, over a half-dozen tourist standard hotels are launching in Sauraha. Some regular activities like construction and maintenance of road, bridge are being carried out in park.
Eco tourism promotion: CNP is major tourists’ destination. There are various places like conservation and breeding centres. Various activities such as jungle safari, jungle walk jungle drive, domestic elephant safari boating, night stay at machans etc have been provisioning. Huge amount of budget is allocated to promotion of Eco-tourism. A study indicates that 1832 personnel (skilled and unskilled), 137 elephants, 104 motor vehicles, view tower are also building in national park for tourist to watch wildlife at nignt,71 carts, 10 boats, 2 camels and some horse carts are in operation for the delivery of better services to tourist.


Achievements
The primary biological achievements of CNP are:
Subsequent to complete evacuation of 11,208 human inhabitants of Old Padampur VDC in 2004, this 17.82 km2 area has excellent potential for tourism development and is prime habitat for about 100 rhinos(CNP Management Plan 2000).
Continual rehabilitation of an estimated 50 ha of grassland, and two wetlands every year
since 1996 Restoration of Devital and Lamital wetlands in CNP.
Successful translocation of rhinos from CNP to BNP and Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve
Notable increase in tiger population from 46 in 1977, to 110 in 1995 (DNPWC 2001) in 2000, 60 were adult out of 109, 91 adult (147) in 2008 and 125 tigers are founds in 2010.
Initiation of radio collaring of tigers, rhinos, sloth bears, and some ungulates in the early period of park management; radio collaring of the tiger was initiated under the tiger research work supported by the Smithsonian Institution, America.
The camera trap and pug marks method of tiger monitoring was being implemented from 2008 to 2009.
Significant increase in gharial (>500), and sloth bear (about 250) populations (DNPWC
2001c).
The Park is recognized as a major element in the Tiger Conservation Landscape by the Global Tiger Forum.
3 Rhinos were fitted with GPS radio collar in Icharni and Bhimpur area of Eastern Sector of CNP between 21th and 25th poush 2066.The collared rhinos will be study to investigate the effects of invasive plant species like Mikania Macrantha.

Conservation Trials, Trends, policies implemented in Nepal.
The era of modern conservation in Nepal began in the 1950s, with the overthrow of the Rana regime, the former hereditary prime ministers, and the restoration of the monarchy. The late King Mahendra, the father of the current monarch, assumed the throne in the mid-1950s, and the first wildlife law was published in Nepal in 1957 (HMG 1973, 1977a). This law offered legal protection to rhinos and their habitat. In 1964, a rhino sanctuary was declared by royal decree in Chitwan National Park, and a special guard force, the Gaida Gasti (Rhino Patrol), was also created that year. This time period coincided with the malaria eradication program, financed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), with the aim of eliminating malaria from the Terai: People inhabited Nepali lowlands. Malaria eradication brought mass migration of people in need of land from the densely populated middle hills of Nepal and the plains of India. This was followed by rapid clearance of sal (Shorea robusta) forests, and decline of wildlife populations in Chitwan Valley, formerly a royal hunting reserve, thus providing the impetus for King Mahendra's conservation.
By the late 1960s, King Mahendra supported the beginning of a long-term wildlife project to address conservation issues in the entire country, with the help of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project began in 1973 (UNDP/FAO 1973). The broad goals of this project included the effective management and conservation of wildlife and their habitats. But now different NGO and INGO are involved for the conservation of protected areas.
Policy implemented in Nepal
National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 (Fifth Amendment 2005)
Buffer Zone Regulation 1996
Chitwan National Park Regulation 1997
Wildlife farming, reproduction and research policy
Long-term policy and action plan for APO:
Anti poaching operation and park protection is the fundamental function of all park staff in CNP. All park staff should be made aware of the rationale of anti-poaching responsibilities. There should be a regular interaction programme (quarterly) to reinforce the team spirit among and between the staff of CNP, and the protection unit of Nepal Army.
The APO is supported also by local people and the CBOs in the BZ. Community Based Anti poaching Operations (CBAPO) are showing signs of success in protecting wildlife. Support to CBAPO through BZ committees and other conservation partners would need to be persuaded in the APO policy framework.
Handover of the management of protected areas: The policy regards to the management of national parks, wildlife reserves and conservation areas for NGO or other organizations was approve by the government on 15 August 2003.
Policy on wildlife farming: The working policy on wildlife farming, breeding and research 2003, approved by the government on 28 August 2003 was design to implement policies that improved the living condition of women, poor and disadvantage group society through conservation biology.
International convention and treaties: Convention on Biological diversity at the Earth Summit (1992) in Rio, Nepal develops a Nepal Biodiversity strategy in 2002.
Protected sites: As authorized by the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Acts, in the response to international conventions and treaties, the Government of Nepal has established a network of protected areas.
Recommendation: There should be the strict enforcement and application of the law for the conservation practices.
The conservation programs will work only if the basis needs of the local people are met, which include being able to grow enough foods, effective health care and basis education. Once these basis needs are met, local people may be responsive to conservation among the concerned agencies and projects.
Emphasis will be given to an effectively use the research and training centers for the park to regularly train staff and local communities in integrated landscape conservation and management.
Conclusion: Chitwan National Park is one of the glorious park of the country and ecosystem of CNP enhanced in sustainable way. And enhancing the poverty alleviation and economic and social development of that areas.